Haio Zimmermann

Close investigation of landscape art of the late medieval and early post-medieval art from the Low Countries for the depiction of rural houses of higher hierarchy, highlighted as a recurring feature stone houses, low or as a tower, attached to farmhouses. A hall can be identified in many cases by the presence of a chimney. The reliability of the depictions was studied by means of the contemporary literature, like K. van Mander (1604) and by comparing the depictions with the results of archaeological research, the study of written sources and the study of vernacular architecture. The depictions were compared with what is known about stenen kamers (stone chambers), small or large stone houses, attached to timber farmhouses. The stone houses contained a heated hall above a vaulted cellar, and the upper storey could be used for storage. The conclusion of this study is that within certain limits depictions can be used as three-dimensional images of how rural buildings of the higher hierarchy looked like.

Phosphate mapping, used in combination with other scientific and archaeological methods, is long since recognized as a most useful technique in field investigations relating to settlement archaeology. In Large-scale investigations, it helps in determining boundaries between the settlement itself and surrounding arable fields. In detailed, small-scale studies, it is invaluable in functional analysis in and about house structures. Interpretation of phosphate data is illustrated with reference to various examples and the limitations of the method are also considered. The importance of using an appropriate analytical method is stressed. Methods such as the 'spot test', which detect only a variable fraction of the total phosphate, are inappropriate. It is recommended that the method detects more than 90% of the easily soluble, i.e. available, phosphate, and also insoluble phosphate. Practical advice, based on personal experience, is provided as to optimum sampling strategies (linguistic improvements: M. O'Connell, Galway).

Settlement history of the town-area of Wilhelmshaven in pre- and protohistoric times and research dealing with this.
We deal with the periods from ± 0 AD to early modern with the main focus on the settlements, the Wurten (terps). One subject are the early considerations how the clay district developed. Quite long the idea was that the whole coastal area declined. We treat finds like briquetage for very early salt winning, a half fabric of a millstone and the most extensive archaeological monument, the ridge and furrow field systems.

Interdisciplinary research in the area of a central place Sievern, county of Cuxhaven, using field walking (without and with a detector), phosphate analysis, aerial photography, evaluation of written sources, of early very precise levellings.

Many archaeologists have a fixed opinion on the life span of wooden buildings
with dug-in (earthfast) posts. In this contribution it is argued that sound
research supporting these opinions is scarce. Using a critical approach to
archaeological data it is shown that only a limited number of data on life span
are really trustworthy. Extant buildings and data from archaeological and
historical research show that buildings with earthfast posts could stand for
periods varying from less than ten years up to more than a hundred years, or
even a couple of centuries. A complicating fact is that, even after complete decay
of the underground parts of the posts, these buildings could remain standing for
a considerable period. It is demonstrated that the life of these buildings depends
on many factors. From experimental research it follows that most important
among these are wood species, humidity and post diameter.
Around 1000 AD two methods that prolonged life were generally applied:
building on padstones, thus preventing contact of posts with (moist) soil; and
the use of posts of larger dimension. By these means life span was lengthened
considerably to many centuries. Examples of such houses, dendrochronologically
dated to the 12th and 13th century, are not uncommon in European
towns. This paper does not, however, discuss why foundation on the surface,
a technique going back to the Neolithic, was not adopted earlier as standard
building technique.
It is clear that the aforementioned fixed opinions on life span lack a sound
foundation. In settlement excavations, emphasis should be given to relevant
observations as well as relative and absolute dating, so that we can add further
examples to the sparse collection of well-documented life span estimates. Many
new data are to be expected, especially from excavations in the Dutch clay and
peat areas.

The dressed house. House walls covered with and
fences built out of straw and reed, as witnessed archaeologically,
ethnographically and iconographically.
The covering of house walls and the building of fences
with straw or reed can only rarely be verifi ed by
archaeology. Ethnographic, iconographic and archival
sources from the 16th century onwards give us much
more information and indicate a wide distribution of
the practice. The examples selected are spread mainly
from Belgium to Denmark and Poland. They are
presented with the view to demonstrate to archaeologists
the nature of the evidence as found in excavations
(corr. Niall Brady, Dublin).

Der im Sachsenspiegel, Landrecht lll 45, §8 beschriebene Rutenberg ist nur in der oldenburger Bilderhandschrift auch bildlich dargestellt worden. Obwohl hier eine Scheinbuße illustriert wird, sind Text- und Bildquelle als wichtige Belege für diesen einfachen, aber praktischen Speicherbau zu werten. Er diente seit der Urgeschichte bis in die Neuzeit der Lagerung des noch ungedroschenen Getreides und anderer Feldfrüchte und von Heu. Sein hohes Alter wird durch Grundrisse in archäologischen Grabungen belegt, die ältesten Befunde datieren aus der jüngeren Bronzezeit. Auch die weite Verbreitung von nur zwei Namen spricht für ein hohes Alter und eine ursprünglich weite Verbreitung.

A small cast bronze object - a device incorporating a swivel - from the gravel of the river Weser is rediscussed. It is perhaps of Romano British origin and can be dated shortly BC to after 100 AD. By parallels it is possible to define the function as hanger for suspension, for instance of oil-flasks.

A small cast bronze object (in cast on hilt technique) - a device incorporating a swivel - from the gravel of the river Weser is discussed. It is adorned with dolphins. The region where the device was found is remarkable for a concentration of “Celtic” looking finds. In a second article (Zimmermann 1977) the function is defined.

The results presented show how P-mapping yields
valuable information for understanding house features.
They show that every house plan which is not overlapped
by other features, and which is not P-mapped, is a lost
chance. The often-heard argument, that in projects there
are not the means for such additional analytical work, can
be countered with the point that the samples taken can wait
for examination many years. In all cases where the original
surface is not preserved, P-mapping is the only method to
fi nd evidence for the possible functions a house had.

Abstrakt
Po třech autorových článcích publikovaných roku 1999 se tento příspěvek zabývá stájemi
pro hovězí a vepřový dobytek. Oba typy stájí měly v průběhu doby a v různých oblastech
rozdílný význam. Důležité byly zejména pro shromažďování chlévské mrvy, ochranu
hospodářského pozemku před poškozením hospodářskými zvířaty během zimy, jejich
ochranu před zcizením atd. Překvapivý je zvláště fakt, do jaké míry se shodují příčiny pro
zavedení a udržování stájí, které autor formuloval v roce 1999, s etnografickými prameny
(Huppertz 1948).
Co se týče prostoru mimo Skandinávii a oblasti jižně od Severního moře, není ve většině
evropských zemích dosud zcela jasné, kdy k zavedení stáje došlo, kde byla kontinuálně
udržována, a kde nikoliv.
Stáje lze prokázat pomocí různých přírodovědných metod v závislosti na tom, zda se
dochovala původní pochozí úroveň terénu. V případě velkoplošných výzkumů pod původním
povrchem, jako např. půdorysy domů s přilehlým okolím, slibují přesvědčivé výsledky
metody fosfátového mapování. To za předpokladu, že se neomezujeme pouze na pár půdorysů
domů. K dnešnímu dni existuje v prostoru jižně od Severního moře a ve Skandinávii
přesvědčivý souhrn vymapování pomocí fosfátové metody (P-Kartierung) – přesvědčivý
proto, že zahrnuje velký počet výzkumů umožňujících solidní interpretace. Na tomto
základě by mohla být fosfátová metoda úspěšně velkoplošně užívána i v dalších částech
Evropy. Na základě písemných, obrazových a etnografických pramenů s různými aspekty
hovězího a vepřového ustájení a zimování dobytka byly diskutovány např. otázky způsobů
umístění dobytka ve stáji, přespávání ve stáji, stájních topenišť, chaty a uvázání zvířat.
Ačkoli nelze jednoduše přenést tyto jednotlivé doklady do pravěkých a raně historických
podmínek, mohou být tyto prameny nápomocné k formulaci modelů. Právě v otázce prasečích
chlévů je toto obvláště zajímavé, neboť tato zařízení zatím nebyla archeologicky
doložena. Každý dobře dochovaný a dokumentovaný půdorys domu, který není měřen
pomocí fosfátové metody, je ztracenou šancí.
Abstract
Notes on the evolution in housing domestic animals from prehistory to modern times,
based on the cattle-byre and pigsty.
Succeeding three papers published in 1999, this paper deals with the byre and pigsty;
structures which served many purposes, varying in time and place. They were important
to collect dung, to save the farmed areas from damage during the winter, to protect the
animals from raids etc. It is astonishing how well the reasons for the introduction and
maintenance of the byre, as summarised by the author in 1999, match with ethnographical
sources quoted by Huppertz (1948).
Apart from Scandinavia and the areas on the southern edge of the North Sea, very little is
known about when and why stabling was introduced in Europe, and whether it was practiced
continuously or not.
The presence of byres can be demonstrated by various scientific methods. When large scale
excavations uncover complete yards with different types of buildings and structures, phosphate
analysis is an excellent method to give insight into the use and function of these yards,
providing that the researcher does not restrict himself to a few individual house plans.
At present, only for the areas at the southern edge of the North Sea and in Scandinavia
there are convincing P-mapping data; convincing because large numbers of data facilitate
correct interpretation. Therefore phosphate analysis should also be a method of research
in other European areas.
By means of documentary and pictorial sources as well as ethnographic reports concerning
different aspects of the byre and pigsty and the wintering of domestic animals are
discussed, e.g. in which direction the cattle were stalled, their herding and tethering and
the use of the byre for sleeping and the presence or absence of a hearth. Even if the results
may not be directly applicable to pre- and proto-historical conditions, these sources can be
helpful to produce models. This is especially interesting in the case of the pigsty, for which
there is little archaeological evidence so far.
And each well-preserved and undisturbed house-plan which is not phosphate mapped, is
a lost opportunity. (corr. Adrie Ufkes, Groningen)
Klíčová slova: stáj – ustájení – stájové hospodářství – pravěk – novověk – hovězí stáj – prasečí
chlév – stáje v pravěku a protohistorii – zavedení a udržování stáje – hnojivo – hnojení –
pastva – mrva jako palivo – topeniště ve stáji – přespávání ve stáji – uspořádání dobytka
ve stáji – stáje v polozemnicích – ohrady a stáje ve městech – archeopedologické metody –
fosfátové mapování – písemné prameny – obrazové prameny – etnografická srovnání
Key words: byre – pigsty – stable – stabling – byre economy – prehistory, pen, fold, early
recent time, byre in pre- and protohistoric times – introduction of the byre – maintenance
of the byre – dung – manure – manuring – tethering – staking – dung as fuel – fireplaces
in byre/stable-sleep, overnight stay in the byre – orientation of the cattle in the byre – byres
in sunken huts – archaeopedological methods – phosphate mapping, phosphate method,
written sources, pictorial sources, ethnographical comparison

Die Kapitel: The chapters:
Phosphatkartierung und andere Methoden
Möbel
Schlafstätten
Schlafen im Stall
Schlafen im Grubenhaus
Der Abort
Die Hygienischen Verhältnisse
Häuser mit und ohne Kammerfach
Rauchhäuser
Rauchhaus als Krankheitsquelle
Gesundheitsberichterstattungen

The Roman Iron Age and Migration Period Settlement of Flögeln-Eekhöltjen. Building Features and their Function.
With this volume we begin the publication of the results of the research programme: "Evolution of a 'Siedlungskammer' (Inhabited Isle) since Neolithic times with special regard to economic conditions". This major project of the 'Lower Saxony Institute for Historical Coastal Research', Wilhelmshaven, had the aim of investigating the evolution of settlement and the development of the cultural landscape from Neolithic until modern times of a limited area with natural boundaries: the Siedlungskammer of Flögein, Kr. Cuxhaven. The programme has been financially supported by the German Research Council since 1971. The excavations took place between 1971 and 1986. Apart from the discussion of the aims of the research programme and of the techniques of excavation, the publication focuses on presenting the plans of buildings of the settlements of Flögeln-Eekhöltjen, dating from the Ist to the early 6th Century AD.
In discussion are the structure and type of buildings and, as the main subject, the function of the following buildings and features: long-houses, sunken huts, a sunken building with 'Pfosten-Scheren' (scissor-post)-construction, horseshoe shaped features, granaries of different kinds, pits used for storage, wells and a ditch that was the source of drinking water for the domestic animals.
The 154 long-houses belong mainly to three types with several subdivisions. The features such as walls, inner posts, dividing walls etc. were analysed and compared with those excavated elsewhere. Peculiarities in Flögeln, seldom occurring in other settlements, are roof-carrying posts in the short sides which we Interpret as indicating vertical gables and trusses not set at a right angle to the longitudinal axis of the house. While most of the long-houses and sunken huts had earth-fast posts, in some cases the posts were set on post pads of stone, or both techniques were combined. The majority of the buildings was orientated west-east, which is also today the direction of the prevailing winds.
The different functions are determined äs follows: a combination of (1.) comparison with houses excavated in other settlements, especially of Feddersen Wierde; (2.) small scale mapping of phosphate values; (3.) evaluating both features and finds from the houseplans. The phosphate mapping helps to define different functional areas. Of those with high Phosphate-Infiltration, the cattle byre can be identified by the spacing of the trestles, in some cases by a sunken area. In several instances the Situation of the hearth in the living area shows up through higher phosphates as well. Clearly the
phosphate mapping shows, especially in the village of the 5th/6th Century AD, that the house and courtyard adjoining to the south were one connected activity area.
Of the 156 sunken huts (at least 183 inclusive of the different building phases), dating from the l st to the 5th/6th Century AD, the two-post-type is much more common than the six-post-type.
Again there are features hitherto not found or seldom found in other settlement excavations, for instance distinctly inward slanting ridge posts. To provide models for the functions which are possible at all and for how these buildings could have been constructed, an overview of modern sunken featured buildings in Europe as well as representations from Late Medieval and later art are presented. Mainly, the modern examples were used for living and storage and as a byre. In contrast to this the
prehistoric sunken huts from Flögeln are likely to have been work-shops and cellars for storage.
The diversity of possibilities for storage is astonishing. Indications point to a loft in the long-houses and to certain sunken huts, as well as different kinds of granaries, described below, and further a special type of pits. The granary type, well known from many settlement excavations, consisted of cabins elevated on four to twenty posts. We consider a special building type in Flögeln, which is well known from settlements in Jutland, to have been granaries as well and to have had staddles between posts and floor as protection against mice and rats. The granaries of this type are always lying parallel
to and are often even connected with the fences.
The nine wells, dating from the l st to 5th Century AD, were of varied construction. They were situated only in the eastern part of the settlement area in Flögeln-Eekhöltjen. Water for the domestic animals was also supplied by a ditch which was fed by a water-collecting-system (I have to thank Jay Butler, Groningen, for correction of the English text).

In dieser Abhandlung über den Übergang vom Pfosten- zum Ständerbau werden die verschiedenen Formen der beiden
Bautechniken vorgestellt und die relevanten Fachbegriffe definiert. Im Pfostenbau mit den eingegrabenen, seltener
eingerammten, Füßen der Dachstützen trugen die Pfosten als Gabelpfosten oder mittels eines Zapfens die Rahme. Im
Ständerbau fußten die Dachträger auf Schwellen oder Ständersteinen. Weil der nicht erdfeste Ständerbau ungleich schwerer
als der Pfostenbau nachgewiesen werden kann, wurde das Referenzgebiet mit Nord- und Mittel- sowie teilweise auch
Ost- und Westeuropa groß gewählt. Außer archäologisch ergrabenen Siedlungsbefunden werden Bild- und Textquellen, wie
z. B. frühe Bauordnungen, herangezogen. In den Vergleichen wird auf Holzbau-Konstruktionen aus ganz Europa sowie aus
anderen Erdteilen, vor allem Nordamerika und Japan, verwiesen. Neben dem in der gesamten Urgeschichte vorherrschenden
Pfostenbau war schon seit ca. 3000 v. Chr. auch der Ständerbau bekannt. Er war aber vermutlich viel seltener als
die zeitgleichen Pfostenbauten. In Europa ist weithin eine deutliche Übergangsperiode zum Ständerbau etwa vom 11.-
14. Jh. zu verzeichnen. Aber auch in der Neuzeit wurden noch Pfostenbauten errichtet. Ein ähnlicher Übergang ist auch für
den ebenfalls nicht erdfesten Blockbau zu belegen. Diskutiert werden die möglichen Gründe, weshalb sich der Ständerbau
sehr lange nicht durchsetzen konnte, sowie die Konsequenzen aus dem Übergang von erdfestem zu nicht erdfestem Bauen:
eine erhebliche Verlängerung der Lebensdauer der Häuser und die Möglichkeit von Fertigbauweise und damit von Mobilität.

Schlüsselwörter: Europa, Japan, Urgeschichte, Mittelalter, Neuzeit, Siedlungsarchäologie, Volkskunde, Bauordnung, Hausbau,
Holzhaus, Blockbau, Volksglaube.

Discussing the transition from earthfast (Pfostenbau) to not earthfast vertical post houses (Ständerbau), the different
techniques of both building methods are presented and the most relevant terms are defined. Earthfast construction
means the lower ends of the roof-carrying posts are dug or sometimes rammed into the soil. These posts carried the plate
with a fork or a tenon on top. On the contrary the lower ends of the not earthfast constructions normally stood on sills or
padstones. As Ständerbau is very difficult to trace, comparisons are collected in a large area: North and Central and in part
Eastern and Western Europe. Apart from archaeological features pictorial äs well äs written sources like early building regulations
are dealt with. For comparison timber constructions from different parts of the world are referred to, especially
North America and Japan. The not earthfast constructions reach far back in prehistory to about 3000 BC. In contrast to earthfast buildings, however, such constructions remained obviously rare. A main transition phase to Ständerbau can be ascertained
for wide parts of Europe north of the Alps, from about the llth-14th cent. AD. But until recently earthfast constructions
were still erected. A comparable transition is also true for the likewise not earthfast corner timbering. The possible
reasons why it took so long until Ständerbau got through are discussed äs well äs the consequences of the transition:
the houses lasted much longer and they could be erected äs prefabricated buildings and by that got mobil.
Key words: Europe, Japan, Prehistory, Middle Ages, Modern times, settlement archaeology, ethnography, building regulations,
timber building, earthfast post construction, postpad building, corner timbering, populär belief.